Waterborne/foodborne outbreaks of
Cryptosporidium parvum

(This list should NOT be used as a citation in a refereed journal article)

Updated: 04 September 1999
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The following is a bibliographic list of select articles dealing with waterborne and environmental detection of Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis. Because articles on this topic are becoming so numerous, I have split it out from the main "Bibliography of Cryptosporidium" file. Previously, there was also a table listing the known waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis through 1999. However, all of this information has now been published (2000, Int. J. Parasitol. 30: 1305-1322).


Addiss, D.G. et al. 1996. Reduction of risk of watery diarrhea with point-of-use water filters during a massive outbreak of waterborne Cryptosporidium infection in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1993. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 54: 549-553.

Aldom, J.E. and Chagla, A.H. 1995. Recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts from water by a membrane filter dissolution method. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 20: 186-187.

Anguish, L.J. and Ghiorse, W.C. 1997. Computer-associated laser scanning and video microscopy for analysis of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in soil, sediment, and feces. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 63: 724-733.

Archer, G.P. et al. 1993. Rapid differentiation of untreated, autoclaved and ozone-treated Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts using dielectrophoresis. Microbios 73: 165-172.

Archer, G.P. et al. 1993. Dielectrophoretic concentration of micro-organisms using grid electrodes. Microbios 76: 237-244.

Atherton, F. et al. 1995. An outbreak of waterborne cryptosporidiosis associated with a public water supply in the UK. Epidemiol. Inf. 115: 123-131.

Atwill, E.R. 1996. Assessing the link between rangeland cattle and waterborne Cryptosporidium parvum infection in humans. Rangelands 18: 48-51.

Belosevic, M. et al. 1997. Nucleic acid stains as indicators of Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst viability. Int. J. Parasitol. 27: 787-798.

Bridgman, S.A. et al. 1995. Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with a disinfected groundwater supply. Epidemiol. Inf. 115: 555-566.

Brown, E.A.E. et al. 1989. Cryptosporidiosis in Great Yarmouth-the investigation of an outbreak. Publ. Health 103: 3-9.

Brush, C. F. et al. 1999. Transport of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts through saturated columns. J. Environment. Qual. 28: 809-815.

Campbell, A.T. et al. 1992. Fluorescent imaging of Cryptosporidium using a cooled charge couple device (CCD). J. Microbiol. Meth. 16: 169-174.

Campbell, A.T. et al. 1993. Detection of oocysts of Cryptosporidium by enhanced chemiluminescence. J. Microbiol. Meth. 17: 297-303.

Campbell, A. et al. 1995. Novel methodology for the detection of Cryptosporidium parvum: a comparison of cooled charge couple devices (CCD) and flow cytometery. Wat. Sci. Tech. 27: 89-92.

Casemore, D.P. 1998. Cryptosporidium and the safety of our water supplies. Comm. Dis. Publ. Health 1: 218-219.

Casemore, D.P. and J. Watkins. 1998. Review of disinfection associated studies on Cryptosporidium. Report commissioned by the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR), managed by the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI), from Yorkshire Environmental Alcontrol, UK. Clcontrol contract Ref. ALC 1796, 56 pp.

Chauret, C. et al. 1998. Aging of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in river water and their susceptibility to disinfection by chlorine and monochloramine. Can. J. Microbiol. 44: 1154-1160.

Christensen, E.R. et al. 1997. Water quality in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, versus intake crib location. J. Environ. Engineer. 123: 492-498.

Chung, E. et al. 1998. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in municipal water samples by the polymerase chain reaction. J. Microbiol. Meth. 33: 171-180.

Cicirello, H.G. et al. 1997. Cryptosporidiosis in children during a massive waterborne outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin: clinical, laboratory and epidemiologic findings. Epidemiol. Inf. 119: 53-60.

Clancy, J.L. et al. 1994. Commercial labs: how accurate are they? J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 86: 89-97.

Colton, J.F. et al. 1996. Filter backwash and start-up strategies for enhanced particulate removal. Wat. Res. 30: 2502-2507.

Cordell, R.L. et al. 1997. Impact of a massive waterborne cryptosporidiosis outbreak on child care facilities in metropolitan Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Ped. Inf. Dis. J. 16: 639-644.

Crabtree, K.D. et al. 1996. The detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in cistern water in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Wat. Res. 30: 208-216.

D'Antonio, R.G. et al. 1985. A waterborne outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in normal hosts. Ann. Intern. Med. 103: 886-888.

Deere, D. et al. 1998. Evaluation of fluorochromes for flow cytometric detection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts labelled by fluorescent in sity hybridization. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 27: 352-356.

Deere, D. et al. 1998. Rapid method for fluorescent in situ ribosomal RNA labeling of Cryptosporidium parvum. J. Appl. Microbiol. 85: 807-818.

DeLeon, R. et al. 1993. Detection of Giardia, Cryptosporidium and enteric viruses in surface and tap water samples in Spain. Int. J. Environment. Health Res. 3: 121-129.

Deng, M.Q. et al. 1997. Immunomagnetic capture PCR to detect viable Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from environmental samples. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 63: 3134-3138.

Donnelly, J.K. et al. 1997. The Cryptosporidium problem in water and food supplies. Lebensm.-Wiss. u. Technol. 30: 111-120.

Dowd, S.E. and S.D. Pillai. 1997. A rapid viability assay for Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts for use in conjunction with indirect fluoresecent antibody detection. Can. J. Microbiol. 43: 658-662.

Drozd, C. and J. Schwartzbrod. 1996. Hydrophobic and electrostatic cell surface properties of Cryptosporidium parvum. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 62: 1227-1232.

Dworkin, M.S. et al. 1996. Cryptosporidiosis in Washington State: an outbreak associated with well water. J. Inf. Dis. 174: 1372-1376.

Eisenberg, J.N.S. et al. 1998. An analysis of the Milwaukee cryptosporidiosis outbreak based on a dynamic model of the infection process. Epidemiology 9: 255-263.

Fayer, R. et al. 1998. Infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts stored in water at environmental temperatures. J. Parasitol. 84: 1165-1169.

Ferguson, C.M. et al. 1996. Relationships between indicators, pathogens and water quality in an estuarine system. Water Res. 30: 2045-2054.

Ferrari, B.C. et al. 1999. Comparison of Cryptosporidium-specific and Giardia-specific monoclonal antibodies for monitoring water samples. Wat. Res. 33: 1611-1617.

Filkorn, R. et al. 1994. Selective detection of viable Cryptosporidium oocysts by PCR. Zbl. Hyg. 195: 489-494.

Fricker, C.R. and J.H. Crabb. 1998. Water-borne cryptosporidiosis: detection methods and treatment options. Adv. Parasitol. 40: 241-278.

Frost, F.J. et al. 1998. A two year follow-up survey of antibody to Cryptosporidium in Jackson County, Oregon following an outbreak of waterborne disease. Epidemiol. Inf. 121: 213-217.

Frost, F.J. et al. 1998. Comparisons of ELISA and Western blot assays for detection of Cryptosporidium antibody. Epidemiol. Inf. 121: 205-211.

Gallaher, M.M. et al. 1989. Cryptosporidiosis and surface water. Am. J. Publ. Health 79: 39-42.

Gibbons, C.L.et al. 1998. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. muris oocysts in spiked backwash water using three PCR-based protocols. Protist 149: 127-134.

Gillen, A.L. 1995. Illustrating Cryptosporidium as a newly recognized threat to clean water. Am. Biol. Teacher 57: 549-551.

Goldstein, S. 1994. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in Clark county, Nevada: summary of investigation. CDC report, Epi-aid #94-45-1.

Goldstein, S. et al. 1996. Cryptosporidiosis: an outbreak associated with drinking water despite state-of-the-art water treatment. Ann. Int. Med. 124: 459-468. [Clark County, Nevada outbreak]

Graczyk, T.K. et al. 1996. Evaluation of commercial enzyme immunoassay (EIA) and immunofluorescent antibody (IFA) test kits for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts of species other than Cryptosporidium parvum. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 54: 274-279.

Graczyk, T.K. et al. 1996. Viability and infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts are retained upon passage through a refractory avian host. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62: 3234-3237.

Graczyk, T.K. et al. 1997. Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts recovered from water by the membrane filter dissolution method retain their infectivity. J. Parasitol. 83: 111-114.

Gradus, M.S. et al. 1994. The Milwaukee Cryptosporidium outbreak: its impact on drinking water standards, laboratory diagnosis, and public health surveillance. Clin. Microbiol. Newslett. 16: 57-64.

Griffin, R.J. et al. 1998. Public reliance on risk communication channels in the wake of a Cryptosporidium outbreak. Risk Analysis 18: 367-375.

Grimason, A.M. et al. 1993. Occurrence and removal of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts and Giardia spp. cysts in Kenyan waste stabilisation ponds. Wat. Sci. Tech. 27: 97-104.

Grimason, A.M. et al. 1993. Occurrance of Giardia sp. cysts and Cryptosporidium sp. oocysts in faeces from public parks in the west of Scotland. Epidemiol. Inf. 110: 641-645.

Grimason, A.M. et al. 1994. Application of DAPI and immunofluorescence for enhanced identification of Cryptosporidium spp oocysts in water samples. Wat. Res. 28: 733-736.

Haas, C.N. and J.B. Rose. 1995. Developing an action level for Cryptosporidium. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 87: 81-84.

Haas, C.N. et al. 1996. Assessing the risk posed by oocysts in drinking water. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 88: 131-136.

Hall, T. et al. 1995. Cryptosporidium removal during water treatment using dissolved air flotation. Wat. Sci. Tech. 31: 125-135.

Hansen, J.S. and Ongerth, J.E. 1991. Effects of time and watershed characteristics on the concentration of Cryptosporidium oocysts in river water. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 57: 2790-2795.

Hatukai, S. et al. 1997. Particle counts and size distribution in system design for removal of tubidity by granular deep bed filtration. Wat. Sci. Tech. 36: 225-230.

Haynes, E.B. et al. 1989. Large community outbreak of cryptosporidiosis due to contamination of a filtered public water supply. N. Engl. J. Med. 320: 1372-13$

Hirata, T. and A. Hashimoto. 1998. Experimental assessment of the efficacy of microfiltration and ultrafiltration for Cryptosporidium removal. Water Sci. Technol. 38: 103-107.

Hunter, P.R. and C. Quigley. 1998. Investigation of an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with treated surface water finds limits to the value of case control studies. Comm. Dis. Publ. Health 1: 234-238.

Jacangelo, J.G. et al. 1995. Mechanism of Cryptosporidium, Giarida, and MS2 virus removed by MF and UF. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 87: 107-121.

Jakubowski, W. et al. 1996. Environmental methods for Cryptosporidium. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 88: 107-121.

Jenkins, M.B. et al. 1997. Assessment of a dye permeability assay for determination of inactivation rates of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 63: 3844-3850.

Johnson, D.C. et al. 1995. Detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in marine waters. Wat. Sci. Tech. 31: 439-442.

Johnson, D.W. et al. 1993. DNA probe hybridization and PCR detection of Cryptosporidium compared to immunofluorescence assay. Wat. Sci. Tech. 27: 77-84.

Johnson, D.W. et al. 1995. Development of a PCR protocol for sensitive detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in water samples. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 61: 3849-3855.

Johnson, D.W. et al. 1997. Survival of Giardia, Cryptosporidium, poliovirus and Salmonella in marine waters. Wat. Sci. Tech. 35: 261-268.

Joseph, C. et al. 1991. Cryptosporidiosis in the Isle of Thanet; an outbreak associated with local drinking water. Epidemiol. Inf. 107: 509-519.

Juranek, D.D. 1995. Cryptosporidiosis: sources of infection and guidelines for prevention. Clin. Inf. Dis. 21: s57-s61.

Kfir, R. et al. 1995. Studies on the prevalence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in South African waters. Wat. Sci. Tech. 31: 435-438.

Kindzierski, W.B. and Gabos, S. 1994. Health effects associated with wastewater treatment, disposal, and reuse. Wat. Environ. Res. 66: 651-657.

Kostrzynska, M. et al. 1999. Three sample preparation protocols for polymerase chain reaction based detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in environmental samples. J. Microbiol. Meth. 35: 65-71.

Laxer, M.A. et al. 1991. DNA sequences for the specific detection of Cryptosporidium parvum by the polymerase chain reaction. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 45: 688-694.

LeChevallier, M.W. and Norton, W.D. 1995. Giardia and Cryptosporidium in raw and finished water. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 87(Sept.): 54-68.

LeChevallier, M.W. et al. 1991. Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in surface water supplies. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 57: 2610-2616.

LeChevallier, M.W. et al. 1991. Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. in filtered drinking water supplies. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 57: 2617-2621.

LeChevallier, M.W. et al. 1995. Evaluation of the immunofluorescence procedure for detection of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in water. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 61: 690-697.

LeLand, D. et al. 1993. A cryptosporidiosis outbreak in a filtered-water supply. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 85: 34-42.

Leng, X. et al. 1996. Differentiation of Cryptosporidium parvum, C. muris, and C. baileyi by PCR-RFLP analysis of the 18s rRNA gene. Vet. Parasitol. 62: 1-7.

Lisle, J.T. and J.B. Rose. 1995. Cryptosporidium contamination of water in the USA and UK: a mini-review. J. Water SRT - Aqua. 44: 103-117.

Lorenzo-Lorenzo, M.J. et al. 1993. Effect of ultraviolet disinfection of drinking water on the viability of Cryptosporidium oocysts. J. Parasitol. 79: 67-70.

MacKenzie, W.R. et al. 1994. A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. N. Engl. J. Med. 331: 161-167.

MacKenzie, W.R. et al. 1995. Massive outbreak of waterborne Cryptosporidium infection in Milwaukee, Wisconsin: recurrence of illness and risk of secondary transmission. Clin. Inf. Dis. 21: 57-62.

Madore, M.S. et al. 1987. Occurence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in sewage effluents and selected surface waters. J. Parasitol. 73: 702-705.

Maguire, H.C. et al. 1995. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis in south London: what value the p value? Epidemiol. Inf. 115: 279-287.

Manthey, M.W. et al. 1997. Cryptosporidiosis and inflammatory bowel disease. Experience from the Milwaukee outbreak. Dig. Dis. Sci. 42: 1580-1586.

Matheson, Z. et al. 1998. An evaluation of the Gelman Envirochek capsule for the simultaneous concentration of Cryptosporidium and Giardia from water. J. Appl. Microbiol. 85: 755-761.

Matsumoto, N. and K. Watanabe. 1999. Foot prints and future steps of ozone applications in Japan. Ozone Sci. Engineer. 21: 127-138.

Mawdsley, J.L. et al. 1996. Movement of the protozoan pathogen Cryptosporidium parvum through three contrasting soil types. Biol. Fertil. Soils 21: 30-36.

Mawdsley, J.L. et al. 1996. Use of a novel soil tilting apparatus to demonstrate the horizontal and vertical movement of the protozoan pathogen Cryptosporidium parvum in soil. Biol. Fertil. Soils 223: 215-220.

Mayer, C.L. and C. J. Palmer. 1996. Evaluation of PCR, nested PCR, and fluorescent antibodies for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium species in wastewater. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 62: 2081-2085.

Medema, G.J. et al. 1997. Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum, Escherichia coli, faecal enterococci and Clostridium perfringens in river water: influence of temperature and autochthonous microorganisms. Wat. Sci. Tech. 35: 249-252.

Medema, G.J. et al. 1998. Sedimentation of free and attached Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in water. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 64: 4460-4466.

Millard, P.S. et al. 1994. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis from fresh-pressed apple cider. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 272: 1592-1596.

Moore, A.C. et al. 1993. Surveillance for waterborne disease outbreaks-United States, 1991- 1992. Morb. Mort. Weekly Rep. 42 (No. SS-5): 1-22.

Morgan, U.M. et al. 1996. The development of diagnostic PCR primers for Cryptosporidium using RAPD-PCR. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 77: 103-108.

Morris, R.D. et al. 1998. Did Milwaukee experience waterborne cryptosporidiosis before the large documented outbreak in 1993? Epidemiology 9: 264-270.

Nieminski, E.C. and Ongerth, J.E. 1995. Removing Giardia and Cryptosporidium by conventional treatment and direct filtration. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 87: 96-106

Nieminski, E.C. et al. 1995. Comparison of two methods for detection of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in water. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 61: 1714-1719.

Ong, C. et al. 1996. Studies of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. in two adjacent watersheds. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62: 2798-2805.

Ongerth, J.E. and Pecoraro, J.P. 1995. Removing Cryptosporidium using multimedia filters. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 87: 83-89.

Ongerth, J.E. and Pecoraro, J.P. 1996. Electrophoretic mobility of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. J. Environment. Engineer. 122: 228-231.

Ongerth, J.E. and Stibbs, H.H. 1987. Identification of Cryptosporidium oocysts in river water. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 53: 672-676.

Osewe, P. et al. 1996. Cryptosporidiosis in Wisconsin: a case-control study of post-outbreak transmission. Epidemiol. Inf. 117: 297-304.

Owens, J.H. et al. 1994. Pilot-scale ozone inactivation of Cryptosporidium. J. Euk. Microbiol. 41: 56s-57s.

Parker, J.F.W. and Smith, H.V. 1993. Destruction of oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum by sand and chlorine. Wat. Res. 27: 729-731.

Parker, J.F.W. et al. 1993. The effect of ozone on the viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and a comparison of experimental methods. Wat. Sci. Tech. 27: 93-96.

Patel, S. et al. 1998. Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium parvum from two large suspected waterborne outbreaks. Comm. Dis. Publ. Health 1: 231-233.

Peeters, J.E. 1989. Effect of disinfection of drinking water with ozone or chlorine dioxide on survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55: 1519-1522.

Plummer, J.D. et al. 1995. Removing Cryptosporidium by dissolved-air flotation. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 87: 85-95.

Quinn, C.M. and Betts, W.B. 1993. Longer term viability status of chlorine-treated Cryptosporidium oocysts in tap water. Biomed. Lett. 48: 315-318.

Quinn, C.M. et al. 1996. Dose-dependent dielectrophoretic response of Cryptosporidium oocysts treated with ozone. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 22: 224-228.

Ransome, M.E. et al. 1993. Effect of disinfectants on the viability of Cryptosporidium parvum. Wat. Suppl. 11: Amsterdam, pp. 75-89.

Restaino, L. et al. 1995. Efficacy of ozonated water against various food-related microorganisms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61: 3471-3475.

Robertson, L.J. et al. 1992. Survival of oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum under various environmental pressures. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 58: 3494-3500.

Robertson, L.J. et al. 1994. Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis. Part III. development of water treatment technologies to remove and inactivate oocysts. Microbiol. Europe 2: 18-26.

Robertson, L.J. et al. 1998. Viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts: assessment by the dye permeability assay. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 64: 3544-3545.

Rochelle, P.A. et al. 1997. Comparison of primers and optimization of PCR conditions for detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia in water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63: 106-114.

Rochelle, P.A. et al. 1999. Evaluation of immunomagnetic separation for recovery of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from environmental samples. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 65: 841-845.

Rodriguez-Hernandez, J. et al. 1994. Cryptosporidium oocysts in water for human consumption. Comparison of staining methods. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 10: 215-218.

Rogers, M.R. et al. 1995. Identification of algae which interfere with the detection of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts and a method for alleviating this interference. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 61: 3759-3763.

Rose, J.B. 1988. Occurrence and significance of Cryptosporidium in water. J. Am. Wat. Works Assoc. 80: 53-58.

Rose, J.B. 1997. Environmental ecology of Cryptosporidium and public health concerns. Ann. Rev. Public Health 18: 135-161.

Rose, J.B. et al. 1986. Detection of Cryptosporidium from wastewater and freshwater environments. Wat. Sci. Tech. 18: 233-239.

Rose, J.B. et al. 1988. Correlations of the protozoa, Cryptosporidium and Giardia, with water quality variables in a watershed. Wat. Sci. Tech. 20: 271-276.

Rose, J.B. et al. 1989. Evaluation of immunofluoresence techniques for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from environmental samples. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 55: 3189-3196.

Ruxton, G.D. 1995. Mathematical modelling of ammonia volatilization from slurry stores and its effect on Cryptosporidium oocyst viability. J. Agric. Sci. 124: 55-60.

Sartory, D.P. et al. 1998. Recovery of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from small and large volume water samples using a compressed foam filter system. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 27: 318-322.

Shepherd, K.M. and Wyn-Jones, A.P. 1995. Evaluation of different filtration techniques for the concentration of Cryptosporidium oocysts from water. Wat. Sci. Tech. 31: 425-429.

Shepherd, K.M. and Wyn-Jones, A.P. 1996. An evalution of methods for the simultaneous detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from water. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 62: 1317-1322.

Smith, H.V. 1992. Cryptosporidium and water: a review. J. Inst. Water Environment. Manag. 6: 443-451.

Smith, H.V. and Rose, J.B. 1990. Waterborne cryptosporidiosis. Parasitology Today 6: 8-12.

Smith, J.L. 1993. Cryptosporidium and Giardia as agents of foodborne disease. J. Food Protec. 56: 451-461.

Sorvillo, F.J. et al. 1992. Swimming-associated cryptosporidiosis. Am. J. Publ. Health 82: 742-744.

Sorvillo, F.J. et al. 1994. Municipal drinking water and cryptosporidiosis among persons with AIDS in Los Angeles county. Epidemiol. Inf. 113: 313-320.

Stadterman, K.L. et al. 1995. Removal and inactivation of Cryptosporidium oocysts by activated sludge treatment and anaerobic digestion. Wat. Sci. Tech. 31: 97-104.

Sterling, C.R. 1990. Waterborne cryptosporidiosis. In, Cryptosporidiosis of Man and Animals, Dubey, J.P., Speer, C.A., and Fayer, R., eds. CRC Press, Boca Raton. pp. 51-58.

Stetzenbach, L.D. et al. 1989. Monoclonal antibody based immunofluorescent assay for Giardia and Cryptosporidium detection in water samples. Wat. Sci. Tech. 20: 193-198.

Timms, S. et al. 1995. Removal of Cryptosporidium by slow sand filtration. Wat. Sci. Tech. 31: 81-84.

Todd, S.C. et al. 1991. Cryptosporidium and Giardia in surface waters in and around Manhattan, Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 94: 101-106.

Vesey, G. et al. 1993. A new method for the concentration of Cryptosporidium oocysts from water. J. Appl. Bact. 75: 82-86.

Vesey, G. et al. 1993. Routine monitoring of Cryptosporidium oocysts in water using flow cytometry. J. Appl. Bact. 75: 87-90.

Vesey, G. et al. 1997. Simple and rapid measurement of Cryptosporidium excystation using flow cytometry. Int. J. Parasitol. 27: 1353-1359.

Vesey, G. et al. 1997. A simple method for evaluating Cryptosporidium-specific antibodies used in monitoring environmental water samples. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 25: 316-320.

Vesey, G. et al. 1997. Simple and rapid measurement of Cryptosporidium excystation using flow cytometry. Int. J. Parasitol. 27: 1353-1359.

Villacorta-Martinex de Maturana, I. et al. 1992. Efficacy of activated sludge in removing Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts from sewage. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58: 3514-3516.

Wagner-Wiening, C. and P. Kimmig. 1995. Detection of viable Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts by PCR. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61: 4514-4516.

Walker, M.J. et al. 1997. Large-volume samples for Cryptosporidium and Giardia from small streams. J. Environ. Engineer. 123: 89-92.

Walker, M.J. et al. 1998. Method detection limits of PCR and immunofluorescence assay for Cryptosporidium parvum in soil. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 64: 2281-2283.

Walker, M.J. et al. 1998. Source water assessment and nonpoint sources of acutely toxic contaminants: a review of research related to survival and transport of Cryptosporidium parvum. Water Resource Res. 34: 3383-3392.

Wallis, P.M. et al. 1996. Prevalence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts and characterization of Giardia spp. isolated from drinking water in Canada. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 62: 2789-2797.

Webster, K.A. 1993. Molecular methods for the detection and classification of Cryptosporidium. Parasitol. Today 9: 263-266.

Webster, K.A. et al. 1993. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum using a specific polymerase chain reaction. Vet. Parasitol. 50: 35-44.

Weinstein, P. et al. 1993. Cryptosporidial diarrhoea in South Australia. An exploratory case- control study of risk factors for transmission. Med. J. Aust. 158: 117-119.

Whitmire, T.M. and Carrington, E.G. 1993. Comparison of methods for recovery of Cryptosporidium from water. Wat. Sci. Tech. 27: 69-76.

Whitmore, T.N. and Robertson, L.J. 1995. The effect of sewage sludge treatment processes on oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum. J. Appl. Bact. 78: 34-38.

Wiedenmann, A. et al. 1998. PCR detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in environmental samples - a review of published protocols and current developments. J. Indust. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 21: 150-166.

Willocks, L. et al. 1998. A large outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with a public water supply from a deep chalk borehole. Commun. Dis. Publ. Health 1: 239-243.


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