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Cover Crops: A summary
from KSU circulars and bulletins 1908 to1956
by
Lisa French
Contents:
-
Alfalfa (History; Management; Use of Alfalfa
in a Crop Rotation; Alfalfa as pasture)
-
Sweet Clover (Establishment; Sweet Clover
as a Soil Improver; Pasturing; Hay Production)
-
Korean lespedeza (Establishment; Uses
of Korean lespedeza; Grazing; Hay)
-
Cowpeas (Pasturing cowpeas; Hay)
-
Sudan (Soil Improvement; Sudan as Pasture)
-
Other Cover Crops and Forages
-
Legumes or Commercial Fertilizer?
-
A 1908 Bulletin on alfalfa published by Kansas
State Agricultural College features a lengthy discussion of
crop rotations based on soil Building crops with the following
advise for its readers. "The young farmer who will introduce
and practice such a rotation of crops, keeping live stock
on the farm and feeding the roughage and some of the hay and
grain, returning the manure to the soil, will raise not only
more bushels of grain of better quality at a less cost per
bushel during his next forty years of farming, but he will
also have the extra income from the alfalfa, grass, hay and
live stock, and at the end of forty years of such farming
he would have a farm with more fertile soil and a capacity
to produce larger crops of wheat and corn than it does to-day"
("Alfalfa," 1908, p. 266).
This description of an integrated farming system
is echoed throughout A number of historical publications from
Kansas State University which Were published from the early
to mid-1900's. Much of the information in these publications
on cover crops and forages is outdated and of interest primarily
for its historical value. At times, the information seems
incomplete. For instance, red clover, a common cover crop
in Northeast Kansas is seldom mentioned in these publications.
Nevertheless, a considerable amount of information is pertinent
to farmers in the twenty-first century. Some of the information
printed here may not agree with currently recommended practices.
Readers are advised to consult your county agent or more recent
publications for comparison.
Until the wide spread use of commercial fertilizers
in the middle part of the 1900's, all farms paid great attention
to the cycling of nutrients within the farming system. In
the early part of the century before tractor power was commonplace,
the energy requirements for a team of horses was also a part
of that nutrient cycling. The crops raised on a farm served
a variety of purposes beyond cash sales. Soil building and
fertility, erosion control, livestock feed or pasture, and
pest control were important considerations when developing
a cropping system.
The Kansas State Agricultural College publications
sited in this document were written about individual crops
with extensive coverage of cultural practices and economics,
as well as their uses on the farm. It is helpful to remember
that the use of any individual crop was assumed to be a part
of an integrated system including cash grains, livestock,
cover crops and forages.
Alfalfa
History
The 1908 Bulletin lists an extensive history
of Alfalfa with its origin in Central Asia and later movement
into Greece and Rome and eventually France, Spain and northern
Europe. The name "alfalfa" is attributed to a Spanish corruption
of the Arabic name "alfacfach," meaning "the best kind of
fodder." Alfalfa's introduction into the American plains by
Spaniards is traced through Mexico, Texas, and California.
Europeans introduced the same plant into the eastern part
of North America where it was known as "lucerne." ("Alfalfa,"
1908, p. 183-185)
Establishment
Early documents recognize the importance of
soil preparation for the establishment of an alfalfa crop.
The 1908 publication notes, "It is a well known fact to old
clover growers that clover cannot be readily started on old,
'worn' lands...The same is true also of alfalfa..." ("Alfalfa,"
1908, p. 196). This and slightly later publications recommend
liming the soil to increase the pH and applying barnyard manure
to increase organic matter and fertility (probably phosphorus
levels). At least one publication recommends top dressing
new seedlings in the fall with rotted manure to provide winter
protection, hold snow on the field and to hasten spring growth.
If manure is unavailable, the farmer could apply phosphorus
in the form of raw rock phosphate, steamed bone meal or "acid
phosphate" previous to seeding (Throckmorton and Salmon, 1927,
p. 17-18).
Through the years, all of these historical documents recommend
fall seeding "unless it is not practical" (Grandfield and
Throckmorton, 1945, p. 14). Nearly every bulletin gives some
advice for successful spring seeding. The 1927 bulletin, "Alfalfa
Production in Kansas," recommends seeding alfalfa in the spring
on sandy land into standing sorghum or sudan stubble from
which hay was cut the preceding season. The author notes that
the stubble will hold the soil and snow, and protect early
seedlings. (Throckmorton and Salmon, 1927, p. 21)
For over fifty years, researchers considered nurse crops of
spring seeded grains. But as early as 1908, the farmer is
advised that the use of nurse crops "cannot be considered
a safe method" for establishing alfalfa ("Alfalfa," 1908,
p. 203). In 1914, nurse crops are considered useful "where
spring rainfall is abundant." Oats, barley, or spring-planted
winter wheat are to be sown thinly with the alfalfa. (Jardine
and Call, 1914, p. 586) A 1919 publication, Growing Alfalfa
in Western Kansas says, "A nurse crop is as hard on young
alfalfa as are weeds. Moisture being the limiting factor,
there is seldom enough of it for both the alfalfa and the
nurse crop. Nurse crops should therefore not be used in western
Kansas." (Weeks, 1919, p. 4) In 1951, the advice is that a
nurse crop is not needed with good soil preparation. Although
the nurse crop helps control weeds, it also uses soil moisture
and nutrients. The same publication recommends that if a
nurse crop of oats is used, stop every other hole in the drill
so that the oat rows are 14-16 inches apart. (Grandfield,
1951, p. 13)
Weed and insect control-New alfalfa stands are to be mowed
after a spring seeding to control weeds ("Alfalfa," 1908,
p.203). Slightly later advice recommends mowing only if the
weeds are choking the new seedlings and any clippings should
be left as mulch. "Otherwise, leave the seedlings if they
are holding their own" (Weeks, 1919, p. 5).
For nearly fifty years, bulletins discussed mechanical cultivation
of established stands as a method to control weeds and insects.
The earliest mention was in 1908. "It pays to cultivate alfalfa
just as it pays to cultivate corn and other crops." The stand
was to be disked or harrowed each spring and maybe even after
each hay cutting. The purported benefits were to control weeds,
loosen the soil to catch rain, incorporate manure and dead
leaves, and to destroy insect eggs and larva. ("Alfalfa,"
1908, p. 206-211)
Within a few years, cultivation experiments showed "no results
sufficient to justify the expense." Researchers noted that
a good stand should be able to compete with weeds and a poor
stand should be plowed and reseeded in another field (Weeks,
1919, p. 5). Although this general rule held, a later publication
did advocate using a spring tooth cultivator for control of
minor grass and weed infestations in early spring or after
the 1st or 2nd cutting (Throckmorton and Salmon, 1927, p.
28-29).
Most of the controls mentioned for insects involve
the use of poisoned baits that were later found to be unsafe
for humans or other non-target populations. A few mechanical
or cultural controls are mentioned. Grasshoppers were controlled
by disking to kill eggs and larvae ("Alfalfa," 1908, p. 332-
341) and careful attention to early control in fence rows,
roadsides, and adjoining crops (Grandfield and Throckmorton,
1945, p. 56-57). From 1908 to 1945, the hopper dozer was promoted
for use with or without poisoned bait. As described in the
1908 publication, this contraption consisted of "a shallow,
high-backed pan mounted upon runners sufficiently high that
its bottom will scrape the tops of the crops to be protected,
and filled with water covered with a film of kerosene. It
should be used as soon as the hoppers are noticed in abundance,
and during the warm part of the day, because they are then
most active." As the pan was dragged through the field, the
grasshoppers would jump into the pan. ("Alfalfa," 1908, p.
332-341) In 1945, the KSU entomology department offered plans
for constructing hopper dozers. (Grandfield and Throckmorton,
1945, p. 56-57)
Aphids were controlled by harrowing, garden webworms by cutting
the hay prior to severe injury, and cloverseed chalcids by
destroying old seed and any plants outside the field margins
(Grandfield and Throckmorton, 1945, p. 59). Farmers were advised
that pea aphids would usually be brought under control eventually
by lady bird beetles, syrphid fly larvae, parasitic wasp-like
insects, and fungus diseases. Mechanical control was possible
by dragging a low platform (3' x 10-12') through the field
at 4 mph. This device with chains attached to the back would
catch the aphids as they were knocked from the plants. (Grandfield
and Throckmorton, 1945, p. 58-59).
Use of Alfalfa in a Crop Rotation
Alfalfa has always been recognized for its soil building capacity
within a crop rotation. "Much of the land in the west has
already been cropped too long with wheat and corn...The soil
is not necessarily exhausted in fertility but by continuous
cropping the diseases and insects have accumulated...We can
hardly overestimate the value of ...alfalfa...on any soil
deficient in humus and nitrogen by cropping with grain crops
for a long period"("Alfalfa," 1908, p. 265-268). Alfalfa was
known for its ability to promote the formation of humus, loosening
the soil, increasing water holding capacity, and increasing
the channels for air and water within the soil ("Alfalfa,"
1908, p. 270). It increased the yields of crops following
it by fixing nitrogen, penetrating the subsoil, cycling nutrients
from lower levels into the top soil, and providing a break
in the life cycles of common crop pests and weeds (Throckmorton
and Salmon, 1927, p. 9).
Although the recommendations varied regarding the number of
years for leaving a field in alfalfa, there were consistencies
throughout the period. In 1908, it was noted that the most
benefit was received after four or five years. The 1914 bulletin
read, "Five to eight years is the most that alfalfa should
be...[grown] in one field." In 1951, the recommendation was
to leave the field two to five years depending upon such conditions
as the ease of establishing a new stand, the need to move
the rotation across the farm and the health of the current
stand. Citing data that showed that soil fertility did not
appreciably increase after 3 or 4 years, the 1951 publication
encouraged farmers not to leave a field of alfalfa in place
for too long a period. "There may be as much folly under some
conditions in leaving land continuously in legumes as there
is in using it continuously for wheat production, if due consideration
is given to the production and the maintenance of the soil
fertility of the entire farm" (Grandfield, 1951 p. 5-6). Even
the 1908 bulletin cautions against using alfalfa on one field
for a long period where it could cause depletion of some nutrients
("Alfalfa," 1908, p. 272).
When choosing which crops should follow alfalfa
in a rotation pattern, a primary consideration was alfalfa's
heavy use of soil moisture. Sorghum or other drought resistant
crops were favored (Jardine and Call, 1914 p. 604). Small
grains were to be avoided due to a tendency toward rank growth
but annual forage crops such as millet, corn, sorghum, or
kafir-corn or root and potato crops were recommended ("Alfalfa,"
1908, p. 261-262).
Nutrient cycling within the farm-In the first half of the
twentieth century, nutrients were not easily or cheaply imported
onto the farm. Farmers needed to pay special attention to
the nutrients that cycled through various farm enterprises
so that valuable nutrients were not "lost" or exported. "The
farmer should realize that in so far as his alfalfa hay is
sold off the place he is diminishing the assets of his farm
to that extent...It is therefore of the highest importance
in maintaining the fertility of the farm that the alfalfa
produced upon it, if possible, be fed upon it, that by means
of the manure produced, assuming it to be applied to the farm,
the large amounts of potassium and phosphorus will be restored
and the percentage of nitrogen, so important in grain production,
be increased" ("Alfalfa," 1908, p. 291-292).
"When alfalfa is grown for hay and the hay sold
from the farm, very little plant food is added to the soil
and large quantities are removed. In order to secure the
greatest increase in soil fertility from alfalfa, it must
be fed to livestock on the farm and the manure carefully saved
and returned to the fields...A combination of alfalfa, grain,
and livestock farming is the only practical system that will
insure the permanent upkeep of the fertility of the land"
(Jardine and Call, 1914 p. 577). A later publication echoed
this theory and noted that "four tons of alfalfa remove from
the soil nearly 19 pounds of phosphorus, 193 pounds of potassium,
and 86 pounds of calcium" - more than "the equivalent yields
of other farm crops" (Throckmorton and Salmon, 1927, p. 10-11).
With the advent of cheap commercial fertilizers
and the tendency of farms to specialize in either crops or
livestock, nutrient cycling within farms is once again a special
concern. The importation of nutrients onto the farm in the
form of livestock feed can create an unbalanced nutrient cycle.
Large quantities of nutrient-rich manures must be exported
from the farm to prevent a nutrient buildup in the soil and
the potential for water pollution.
Alfalfa as pasture
In 1908, "value-added" agricultural products
were the norm. The "most profitable way for the farmer to
market hay is in the form of horses, beef, pork, mutton or
dairy products" ("Alfalfa," 1908, p. 255). The bulletin noted
that the end product is more easily transported and the primary
by-product (manure) is of equal value to the hay. These same
principles were true for pasturing forages and cover crops
with the added advantages that there was no labor required
for harvesting and feeding the livestock or spreading the
manure.
Alfalfa pasture has been recommended for all
types of livestock. "As a pasture for young, growing hogs,
alfalfa has no equal, and if there is a better pasture for
brood-sows it has never been discovered. Even a bunch of fattening
hogs do not object to it, and gains can be made much more
economically when it is used than without it" ("Alfalfa,"
1908, p.299).
"No other grass or combination of grasses equals
or even approaches the value of alfalfa as a pasture for horses;
and from an economical point of view it certainly has no equal,
as it will furnish so much more feed per acre than any other
grass" ("Alfalfa," 1908, p. 302). This same publication recommends
alfalfa pasture for developing horses with hay fed judiciously
to working and breeding horses.
Alfalfa is also touted as excellent pasture
for sheep and lambs noting that "...the way they grow on alfalfa
is a delight to the shepherd" ("Alfalfa," 1908, p. 304-306).
There is some danger of bloat for sheep and somewhat less
for lambs. "They should never be put on the pasture when they
are empty and hungry, and it is always well to allow them
access to some dry feed and keep them off the alfalfa until
the dew is off; also on damp days. A mixture of alfalfa and
brome-grass or alfalfa and orchard-grass is a safer pasture
than alfalfa alone. A flock of ewes and lambs can be grazed
for a short time each day on alfalfa with but little danger
of loss. If a lamb-creep can be arranged from the sheep corral
to an alfalfa pasture, the lambs will soon learn what it is
intended for and will do far better on it than if confined
to a dry yard" ("Alfalfa," 1908, 304-306).
When speaking of pasturing cattle, this same
publication is less positive. "It is usually considered a
dangerous practice to pasture alfalfa...sooner or later some
of the animals are almost sure to die" ("Alfalfa," 1908, 308).
Recommended practices to help prevent frothy bloat included
planting alfalfa in strips alternating with strips of grass
and gradually accustoming stock to the forage. Farmers are
also cautioned that pasturing if "not done judiciously, has
a tendency to destroy the alfalfa plants" ("Alfalfa," 1908,
308).
By 1945 the extension publications are promoting
the use of alfalfa as pasture for cattle noting that its use
is growing in popularity and it is universally used in Argentina
for grazing. With regard to bloating, the "advantages outweigh
the disadvantages." Make sure the livestock are well fed before
turning them out and that they have a good supply of salt
and water. Some protection may be had by grazing continuously
day and night or by providing access to dry roughage. (Grandfield
and Throckmorton, 1945, p. 49)
In managing the alfalfa itself, choose varieties
that have a more prostrate growth habit so they cannot be
grazed out so easily. Protect the plants from grazing in
the late summer and early fall to build the root reserves,
always maintaining a height of 3-6 inches through the grazing
season and 6-8 inches in the fall. Alfalfa may be mixed with
grasses increase their nutritive value and increase the grass
yield by nitrogen fixation. Trials from 1927-1932 showed increased
hay tonnage with various combinations of grasses and alfalfa
over plantings of just one grass. (Grandfield and Throckmorton,
1945, 48-49)
Sweet Clover
"Sweet clover, once considered a noxious weed,
is now recognized as a valuable crop under certain conditions
in Kansas. Until recently, sweet clover was grown only as
a honey plant...As a crop for soil improvement sweet clover
is unexcelled; for pasturing purposes it has given satisfactory
results; as a forage crop it can often be utilized to good
advantage where alfalfa or red clover can not be successfully
grown" (Cunningham, 1915, p. 1).
Publications in 1913 and 1915 considered the
varieties of sweet clover noting that the common white sweet
clover (Melilotus alba) was then the most extensively grown
in Kansas with a more vigorous and upright habit. It was favored
for "farm purposes", presumably soil improvement, whereas
the biennial yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalus) was
preferred for hay production.
Establishment
Sweet clover could be established on a thoroughly
compacted seed bed anytime from January to the end of May.
A 1921 publication on forage crops for western Kansas recommends
seeding between April 15 and May 15 on clean, moist, firm
ground (Getty, 1921, p. 45). In eastern Kansas, a thinly seeded
nurse crop of barley or oats was suggested.Interseeding into
winter wheat in late winter or early springs was another method.
Broadcasting in the fall or winter on rough, wooded or stony
ground would allow the seed to be worked into the soil by
freezing and thawing of the ground. (Cunningham, 1915, p.
2-3) Trials in western Kansas reported success broadcasting
on sod and stirring the top soil lightly with a harrow to
cover the seed. (Cunningham, 1913, p.2) Sweet clover was
considered a good choice in western Kansas for bottom ground
that was too sandy or too close to ground water for alfalfa.
(Getty, 1921, p. 45)
Sweet Clover as a Soil Improver
"Unproductive and heavy clay and hardpan soils
may be so improved in texture and fertility by growing sweet
clover on them for a few years that they become quite productive"
(Cunningham,1915, p. 10). Farmers valued sweet clover for
its ability to thrive on poor, eroded soils. It was used
to build soil humus and nitrogen content by plowing it back
into the soil or allowing it to "remain on the land". Its
deep roots were recognized for the ability to break the lower
soil layers and add organic matter as they decay. (Cunningham,
1915, p. 10)
Pasturing
The 1915 circular includes an extensive passage
devoted to sweet clover as "excellent pasture for cattle,
sheep, horses, and hogs." It rarely causes bloat and is similar
to alfalfa and red clover in feed value. "Because of its
vigorous growing habits, sweet clover will pasture, especially
on the poorer types of soil, more stock per acre than most
other pasture grasses or legumes." (Cunningham, 1915, p. 7-8)
It may be used to greatest advantage as a supplement
to other pasture since it produces both early and late grazing
and survives the mid-summer drought. It will also grow well
on river bottoms where alfalfa is not suited. (Cunningham,
1915, p. 8)
If hogs are pastured, they should be ringed
during the first year of clover production to prevent them
from uprooting the plants. (Cunningham, 1915, p. 8)
"As a rule, live stock have to acquire a taste for sweet clover
before they can be induced to eat it. The best way to accustom
them to the crop is to pasture them upon it early in the spring,
before other forms of green feed are available." As the season
progresses, it is important to stock heavily enough to keep
down the mature growth and promote new growth. It may be
necessary to clip back the old growth during the second season
in order to stimulate new shoots. (Cunningham, 1915, p. 8)
For permanent pasture, leave enough plants to
reseed themselves during the second year. Or as is outlined
in the circular, a farmer could devise a rotation between
two fields planted to clover in alternate years. Each field
is grazed during the latter half of the grazing season during
the first year and the first half of the grazing season the
second year with haying as an additional option for excess
forage. (Cunningham, 1915, p. 8-9)
Hay production
If the sweet clover is hayed, the farmer may
expect to take one cutting during the first year, cutting
the plants at 20-30" height before the bloom buds appear.
(Getty, 1921, p. 45) During the second year, two or three
cuttings will be possible. The last cutting may be mowed quite
close to the ground if the stand is not expected to reseed.(Cunningham,
1915, p. 5-7)
Korean lespedeza
Korean lespedeza was introduced to the United
States in 1921 from Korea and was first grown at the Arlington
Experiment Farm near Washington, D.C. Later it was distributed
to state experiment fields and was widely grown in southeast
Kansas by 1930. (Anderson, 1949, p.3)
This summer-growing, annual legume varies in
height from 4 inches to 2 feet depending on the availability
of nutrients and moisture. Although it will withstand drought
after establishment, it will not produce well in areas of
low rainfall (generally less than 30 inches annually). For
this reason, it has been pretty much limited to the eastern
third of the state.(Aldous, 1932, p.1-2)
Establishment
Cultural practices for establishing Korean lespedeza
vary somewhat in two circulars published in 1932 and 1949.
The 1932 publication recommended broadcasting the seed in
late February or early March to allow for freezing and thawing
to work the seed into the ground. If the seedbed could be
disked or harrowed, seeding could be as late as mid-April.
Seeding rates were 2-4 pounds/acre on pastures, up to 8 pounds/acre
for erosion control, and 10-12 pounds/acre for hay or seed
production. A nurse crop was not recommended under average
conditions. If one was used, wheat was preferred to oats
because the seed bed would be firmer. If oats were to be
used, the lespedeza should be broadcast or drilled at the
same time as a half seeding of oats. (Aldous, 1932, p.2-3).
The 1949 publication notes that "a common method
of planting lespedeza is to drill or broadcast it in a cereal
grain during the late winter or very early spring. Broadcasting
at this same time is also the usual method of seeding lespedeza
in tame grasses, in depleted native pasture, or on depleted
areas being retired from cultivation . . .Lespedeza is seldom
seeded alone, but if this is done it may be drilled in March
or early April. The seedbed should be firm and the seed
should not be planted deep." Recommended seeding rates at
this time were much higher, varying from 12-15 pounds per
acre to 25-30 pounds per acre with the highest seeding rates
for hay production. Rates of 5-6 pounds per acre were seen
as adequate for interseeding into pastures. Applications of
lime and phosphorus prior to seeding might benefit the lespedeza.
However they were not recommended unless they would benefit
the crop rotation as a whole, since they were unlikely to
increase the lespedeza yield sufficiently to show an economic
benefit (Anderson, 1949, p. 17).
After germination in the spring, the seedlings
can withstand a light frost although a fall frost usually
kills all top growth. "Rapid growth of the crop does not begin
until warm weather and usually it is not ready to carry a
heavy grazing load before mid-June." (Anderson, 1949, p. 4-5)
In the 1932 bulletin, Aldous considered the
long-term establishment of Korean lespedeza. "One seeding
is all that is necessary to establish permanently the crop
even where it is used for pasture, as sufficient seed will
be matured each year to maintain the stand. There will probably
be a little hard seed that will not germinate and this will
carry over until the next season. The accumulation of this
type of seed would probably be enough to perpetuate the stand
even though little or no seed were produced during one unfavorable
season." (Aldous, 1932, p. 2)
Uses of Korean lespedeza
Lespedeza's greatest advantage is the ease of
obtaining a stand. It is possible to start lespedeza without
preparing a seedbed and for this reason, it may be used for
stabilizing eroded areas and roadways. It has been used as
a "permanent" ground cover in orchards of northeastern Kansas
where its shallow root system and low top growth make it less
competitive than other legumes. Mowing or grazing enhances
the dense growth. (Anderson, 1949, p. 11)
As a soil improvement, it does not provide as
great a benefit as other crops such as clover and alfalfa.
For this reason, it should not replace alfalfa or clover but
should be used where the production of other legumes is difficult
or impractical due to pH or low fertility. Neither should
it be substituted for a long term program of liming and phosphorus
application since that use would only lead to further depletion.
Rather it should be used to increase the total legume acres
on a farm as well as to increase the farm feed supply. (Anderson,
1949, p. 7-10)
"The use of lespedeza in the crop rotation lends
flexibility to the cropping plan. For instance, a small grain
field may be pastured off, cut for hay, or allowed to mature.
The lespedeza in turn may be grazed, cut for hay, or grown
to maturity for its seed, as indicated by the need for pasturage
or harvested forage. It usually is desirable to plant lespedeza
in any small grain field in the region where this legume is
adapted. It will make sufficient growth following grain harvest
to provide much pasturage, and at the same time help keep
down the summer-growing weeds and grasses that otherwise are
certain to appear." (Anderson, 1949, p. 9)
Lespedeza is sometimes seeded into thin or overgrazed
pastures. The farmer should take care not to overgraze the
existing grass in an attempt to fully utilize the legume.
This would only lead to further depletion of the grass stand.
(Anderson, 1949, p. 11)
Farmers sometimes sow lespedeza into tame pastures
such as brome or orchard grass however, it is not as good
as alfalfa for these situations. Dense stands of the grasses
may inhibit reseeding of the lespedeza in subsequent years.
Also, lespedeza does not require the same management as the
tame grasses. It would be better to plant lespedeza in an
adjacent field where livestock can be rotated to make the
best use of the forage. (Anderson, 1949, p. 10)
Grazing
The primary use of lespedeza in Kansas in 1949
was grazing. "All classes of grazing animals take lespedeza
readily." Grazing may begin when the crop is several inches
tall in June and continue until frost. Under favorable conditions,
a good stand of lespedeza will carry one animal unit per acre
from June to early September. (Anderson, 1949, p. 6)
"One of the most popular cropping plans designed
for using lespedeza pasture is the so- called 'one-year rotation'
with a cereal grain. The small grain is sown each year and
the lespedeza only once because it volunteers each year thereafter.
Each of the two crops may be grazed, cut for hay, or allowed
to mature seed according to the current needs, thereby increasing
materially the flexibility of the cropping plan." (Anderson,
1949, p. 7)
"(Lespedeza) will stand close grazing by cattle
and still be able to set enough seed to maintain the stand.
Where it is closely grazed, lateral branches come out near
the base of the plant and produce seed." (Aldous,1932, p.
3)
Hay
For hay production, lespedeza should be cut
during or just before the first bloom. It cures rapidly and
produces a good quality hay equal to alfalfa in feed value.
Average yields will produce one ton per acre with good stands
producing as much as two to three tons per acre. (Anderson,
1949, p. 8)
Cowpeas
Kansas State Agricultural College published
a lengthy farm bulletin on cowpeas in 1910. This annual legume
was then a valuable crop in the southern states for forage
and green manure. Its use had only recently extended to the
northern states including Kansas. It was a native of India
being introduced to the United States through the Ogelthorpe
colonies in Georgia in 1734. (TenEyck and Call, 1910, p. 179)
The cowpea, (Vigna unguiculata), has a general
trailing habit but it varies considerably in form depending
upon the variety. Blossoms range in color from white to purple.
Seed color varies from white to black. The pods vary in length
from five inches to over 12 inches and do not ripen all at
one time making it difficult to harvest seed. (TenEyck and
Call, 1910, p. 179)
Between 1904 and 1910, Kansas State tested over
forty varieties at the Manhattan Experiment Station. The top
varieties tested included: Mount Olive, Whippoorwill, Gray
Goose or Taylor, Hammond's Black, Black Eye, New Era, Michigan
Favorite, Warren's New Hybrid, Old Man's, White Giant, Clay,
and Warren's Extra Early. (TenEyck and Call, 1910, p. 191)
The 1910 publication reports that cowpeas will
grow wherever corn will grow. They may be sown in late spring
as soon as the soil is warm or as late as the end of July
for a green manure crop. For hay or green manure, broadcast
or sow in drill-rows six-eight inches apart at a rate of one
to one and one half bushels to the acre. (TenEyck and Call,
1910, p. 196)
In the "drier portions of the state", early
varieties are recommended for hay or pasture to allow maturation
while moisture is available. "In the wheat belt in the central
and western parts of the state there is not sufficient moisture
to produce a crop of cowpeas for green manuring and still
leave the ground in condition for starting wheat the same
fall, except in very favorable seasons." The publications
recommends planting cowpeas at wheat harvest as a green manure
crop to be incorporated in the fall. Corn would be planted
in the spring after the soil moisture had been renewed. (TenEyck
and Call, 1910, p. 183)
Pasturing cowpeas
"Upon stock farms where cow-peas are grown...for
soil improvement it will be found more profitable to pasture
the cow-peas rather than to plow the entire crop under. Little
of the beneficial effects of the cow-peas is lost by this
practice, since by pasturing the droppings of the animals
remain upon the field, and even when the cow-peas are cut
for hay and feed there may be but little loss of fertilizing
elements if care is taken to preserve the manure and return
it to the land." (TenEyck and Call, 1910, p. 186)
Cowpeas were valued as a source of forage during
the latter part of the summer when native pastures had "run
short". Stock could be turned on to the peas at maturity or
when some of the pods had begun to turn yellow. Hogs were
pastured a little later than cattle on the ripe peas. An excellent
source of hog pasture was a combination of corn and cowpeas
with the peas being planted either in rows with the corn or
between the corn rows after cultivating. (TenEyck and Call,
1910, p. 181-182)
Hay
As hay, cowpeas are comparable to alfalfa in
feed value but somewhat less palatable. When planting for
hay, "plant in close drills requiring one bushel of seed per
acre and when so planted the plants tend to grow more upright,
which makes the crop easier to cut with a mower." (1910TenEyck
and Call, 1910, p. 180) Cut the hay when most of the pods
are developed and when the first pods and some of the leaves
begin to yellow. Because they are large succulent plants,
they may be a little harder to cure, being a little woody
at the mature stage. (TenEyck and Call, 1910, p. 200)
As with cowpeas used for pasture, cowpeas planted
for hay may be sown in combination with other crops. Those
recommended are corn, kafir-corn, and sorghum planted thinly
to avoid stunting the peas. (TenEyck and Call, 1910, p. 180).
Cowpea seed may also be fed to livestock. It
has two times the protein and nearly the carbohydrate level
of corn. Although it may not be practical to buy as feed
or to harvest for grain, any unused seed may be ground and
fed. (TenEyck and Call, 1910, p. 188)
Sudan
Sudan grass is a tall, leafy annual grass which
commonly grows six to eight feet tall. It was introduced
into the United States in 1909 by the USDA from Sudan, Africa.
In 1915, there were at least 20,000 acres of sudan grass planted
in Kansas. (Thompson, 1916, p. 5) This forage plant is seeded
between May 15 and July 15 when the farmer has a "warm, clean,
moist seedbed and promising weather" (Getty, 1921, p. 31).
Getty also recommends drilling fifteen to twenty pounds of
seed to the acre in "drills" 6-8 inches apart (p. 33-34).
Soil Improvement
Sudan is one of many crops used within a crop
rotation to achieve more than one purpose. In 1916, it was
recommended as a substitute for corn or a sorghum crop within
the rotation or when used in a longer rotation as a substitute
for hay or pasture grasses. Since it is not a legume, it does
not fix any nitrogen. However, the "extensive fibrous root
system" acts to hold the soil and contributes to the soil
organic matter as it decays. (Thompson, 1916, p. 5)
Sudan as Pasture
In addition to its soil improvement properties,
sudan grass provides a considerable source for livestock forage.
In the early part of the twentieth century, it was usually
used an a hay crop, but was often pastured in summer and fall
for all kinds of livestock, carrying two to three times the
animals as native range could support. It is drought resistant,
heavy-yielding and makes good feed for horses and cattle.
It is most productive during July through September making
it a good supplement to native grass. It was widely recognized
that the stunted second growth could poison cattle, but there
was little discussion of management practices to prevent the
problem. (Getty, 1921, p. 30)
Several early publications recount extensive
trials involving livestock pastured on sudan grass. The 1920
Kansas State publication, "Sudan Grass as a Supplementary
Pasture Crop for Dairy Cattle," includes detailed records
of six Holstein cows fed on 5.4 acres of sudan pasture at
Manhattan, Kansas in 1919 (Call and Fitch, 1920, p.1-2). A
1916 publication recounts grazing trials at Dodge City that
resulted in 375 grazing days for cattle rotated on and off
of three acres of sudan grass during the summer of 1914 (Thompson,
1916, p. 27). The same publication sees promise for sudan
grass as an important forage for hogs on many Kansas farms
(Thompson, 1916, p. 28).
Other Cover Crops and Forages
A wide variety of crops were tried across Kansas
during the early 1900's in an effort to find those best suited
to be used within crop rotations for the purposes of animal
feed, soil improvement, and cash sales. As expected, they
met with various degrees of success in the Kansas climate.
Perennial grasses in combination with clover
or alfalfa were considered important as temporary pastures
within crop rotations. Besides providing forage, grass was
viewed as "a soil protector, a soil-renewer, and a soil-builder."
Grasses cycled nutrients into the upper levels of the soil
where they would be available to the succeeding crops. The
decay of their roots and leaves helped build the organic matter
of the soil and thus, its water holding capacity. (TenEyck,
1911, p. 348-349).
In 1921, millet acreage was reportedly on a
downward slide in Kansas, being replaced by sorgo and sudan
grass because of their greater yields. Thirty years previously,
millet acreage was five times the amount planted in 1921.
It was still considered a good choice for a "quick maturing
catch crop for hay." (Getty, 1921 p. 36)
Trials of vetch in western Kansas showed that
crop not sufficiently drought resistant and hardy to be used
in that part of the state. Hairy vetch, seeded with a little
rye to prevent lodging, was considered as a possible cover
crop for some situations.(Getty, 1921 p. 51)
Pinto bean trials at the Fort Hays station withstood
considerable drought but produced relatively light forage.
However, "one field made good hog pasture in 1917 when the
owner gave up hope of a seed crop" (Getty, 1921, p. 50-51)
Austrian winter peas are mentioned as a potential
cover crop. "Of the fall seeded field peas at Fort Hays, the
only variety to survive the winter was one received by the
station from Austria in 1911. It proved 50-90% winter-hardy
on five successive years" (Getty, 1921, p. 49)
Sunflowers showed mixed results in 1913 and
1914. Rape was considered not as "desirable" as alfalfa or
sudan. But it could be grazed by cattle, sheep, and hogs.
Root crops provided succulent winter feed for all livestock.
In trials from 1902-1909, yields of 10 tons per acre were
common. They were reportedly not commonly grown because silos
allowed the storage of corn and sorghum "which are more economically
produced and stored." (Getty, 1921, p. 51-52). Root crops
are also mentioned in a 1911 publication as pasture crops
for hogs as well as crops of kale and artichokes. (TenEyck,
1911 p. 335)
Cowpeas, soybeans, tepary beans, and pinto beans
were tried between 1913 and 1919 at Fort Hays. "All suffered
considerably each year from one or more of the following:
weeds, cold, drouth, grasshoppers, and rabbits" Chick peas
and Spanish peanuts tried at Fort Hays in 1913 and 1914 showed
"no promise"(Getty, 1921, p. 47-51)
These early trials, both successful and unsuccessful,
may give us insight into potential cover crops that should
be further investigated. Some may be useful within a different
social or economic era. For instance, root crops were not
widely used due to the economics of production and storage
in the early 1900's. The vagaries of weather, changes in cultural
practices, and improvements in varieties may provide the advantage
needed to establish one or more of these crops within crop
rotations or forage systems on current Kansas farms.
Legumes or Commercial Fertilizer?
In 1956, Kansas State University published a
bulletin which illustrated a change in American farms. With
the advent of cheap commercial fertilizers, farms were less
likely to be viewed as integrated systems with an emphasis
on internal nutrient cycling, soil quality, and intricately
related crop and livestock operations.
The bulletin was the result of a study applying
economic principles to the choice of cropping systems. A further
objective of the study was to understand why legumes were
not used on Kansas farms as much as the extension recommendation
of 25% of the farm acreage. During the years included in the
study, 7% of farmland in Kingman county was planted to legumes,
8% of Saline County, and 14% of Sedgwick County. (Bray and
Schnittker, 1956, p. 1)
The economic study indicated that profitability
from legumes was not guaranteed. "The nitrogen from legumes
sometimes results in greater total grain yields with part
of the farm in legumes than with the whole farm in grain.
Establishing this condition requires several seasons. Oftener,
particularly in central and eastern Kansas, there is competition
between crops" (Bray and Schnittker, 1956, p.15).
The authors stuck by the recommendation that
up to 25% of farm acreage could be profitably planted to legumes
as long as the farmer carefully considered the place of each
crop within the rotation. They admitted that profitability
was the only consideration in their study whereas a farmer
must consider forage and pasture needs, soil health, weed
and pest control, erosion control, work distribution, size
of farm, location of markets, management skills, and personal
preference. Profitability might not have been adequately addressed
in that no value was assigned to the conversion of legumes
into a more valuable commodity such as meat or milk. Although
they conceded that fertilizers could substitute for legume
rotations, they cautioned that "where soil structure is a
problem, commercial fertilizers are not likely to replace
legumes" (Bray and Schnittker, 1956, p. 15).
The hesitant endorsement of cover crops in this
bulletin could not begin to address the major forces at work
to discourage the use of legume rotations and cover crops
on Kansas farms. The study indicated that certain legume rotations
had a considerable long term economic advantage but, "farmers
probably grow fewer legumes because they need income quickly"
(Bray and Schnittker, 1956, p. 13) In addition, the practice
of short-term tenancy gave no incentive to start a rotation
that promised increased income over the long term. Where
soil erosion could be at least partly addressed with structural
practices such as terraces, the structural practices were
seen as more cost effective than legume rotations because
they allowed continuous grain production. Government farm
programs also affected the most profitable combination of
crops in ways that were not always consistent with the needs
of the individual farm.
At the end of the twentieth century, there is
renewed interest in cover crops and forages within integrated
farming systems. New emphasis on water and soil quality, certified
organic production, and grazing systems have prompted farmers
to ask about crops that have not been commonly used for many
years. Research from the beginning of the century may provide
us with a starting point to rediscover the use of these crops
within Kansas farming and grazing systems.
Sources
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